I think you will find it interesting reading; it illumines the
constant conflict of interest between the British and the Russians
and other European powers for control of the Dardanelles.
Britain and Russia have been on both sides of the question at
different times.
The facts herein are amply sustained by authority.
[Enclosure]
[The Straits Question]
résumé of the straits
The degree of control or access to the Straits which Russia had,
varied from time to time, according to the fortunes of war. The same is true with
reference to Russia’s control over the Danubian provinces (the
Balkans).
Apparently the period of greatest Russian influence was in the
years 1833 to 1840. During that period Russia had complete
access in and out of the Straits and the right to pass its
war ships through the
Straits, denied to other European powers. It also had the right
to land troops there if necessary for Russian protection.
In 1840 Russia relinquished these rights in order to cooperate
with Britain. After the Crimean War in 1856 Russia was compelled to relinquish all
rights over the Danubian Provinces and, while the Black Sea was
open to commerce of all, ships of war were
[Page 1429]
excluded except for a few small Turkish and Russian vessels.
Fifteen years later Russia repudiated these restrictions in
part. With the exception, however, that the Straits could not be
used by war ships. Thirteen
years later Russia secured an agreement with Germany which would
prevent Britain from using its warships, with a secret provision
that Russia might occupy the Straits if necessary. This lasted
only for six years. In 1890, the Germans refused to re-execute
this treaty. Four years later (1894) England served notice that
any attempt to change the status of the Straits settlement to
enable Russia to pass her warships would be regarded as a casus belli. However, in 1898, Austria
and Russia entered into an agreement whereby the Straits and
Bulgaria were the Russian sphere of influence. Bulgaria secured
its independence, for which Russia paid Turkey for recognizing
this independence 20 million pounds by cancelation of Turkey’s
debt to Russia. In the World War
Britain agreed in 1915 that the Straits were to be open to
Russian war ships. Necessity
drove. It was a complete reversal of the classic British policy.
The irony of the situation was that in 1923, 8 years later, that
which was desired by Russia was opposed now by the Bolsheviks in
fear of the outside aid of the Allies to the White Russians and
Kolshak who were
fighting the Bolshevik Government. Despite the objections of the
Bolsheviks to open up the Straits to war ships, the Straits Settlement at the Lausanne
Conference legislated this right but did not permit Turkey to
fortify the Straits. Thirteen years later at the Montreux
Conference this was amended to permit Turkey to fortify the
Straits, but left the Straits Convention otherwise
unchanged.
In the spring of 1945, the USSR served notice upon Turkey that it
required a revision of its relations with Turkey because of
changed conditions which recognition of the facts required.
Greece occupies a strategic position in the protection of the
Suez Canal (completed in 1869) which, being in the British
sphere of influence, would probably be available for protection
against Soviet warships. The British probably would offer no
serious objection to giving the Russians free access to the
“exit gate” of the Straits. The press has contained some
suggestions that the Russians are seeking access across the
Danubian provinces to a port on the Mediterranean.
Obviously the USSR is protecting itself against any possible
attack through the Dardanelles and also is making secure its
outlet to the warm water of the Mediterranean. Turkey is
probably more concerned with the fear that Russia will require
territorial concessions than she is concerned over free passage
through the Straits.
[Page 1430]
Lausanne Straits
Settlement
In 1923 the Straits Settlement, guaranteed by the Big Three and
Japan, was based on freedom of the air and of the sea as to the
Straits. As to merchant ships, all had
free passage except when Turkey was at war. Under such conditions Turkey had the right to
attack enemy merchant ships and exert the right of contraband on
neutral merchant vessels. As to war ships, each party to
the agreement, the Big Powers, could send up to three ships up
to 10,000 tons each into the Black Sea. Also, other neutrals,
when Turkey was not at war, had
the same right. An exception, however, as to
the Russian status was provided. All belligerent ships
could pass freely into the Black Sea except when Turkey herself
was at war. Both shores of the
Straits were demilitarized. Turkey, however, had the right to
maintain a garrison of 12,000 men and a naval base in
Constantinople.
The Montreux
Conference
In 1936 the Straits Settlement was revised. International control
was ended. When threatened with war, Turkey was granted the right to close the
Straits to warships. Black Sea powers could send war ships through the Straits, but
in single file. Outside powers were limited in the amount of
tonnage which they could ship into the Black Sea. Nonriparian
war ships’ stay in the Black
Sea was limited to twenty-one days.
conclusion
From the foregoing it is apparent that Russia has been
continuously concerned for the past 150 years with the
Dardanelles and the Straits, both as affording an outlet to the
warm water of the Mediterranean, and also as an inlet passage
for attack by warships upon its back door through the Black
Sea.
From the time of Napoleon’s attempt to attack England, through a
threat to India, by way of Egypt, Russia has been on one side or
the other, involved in the protection of its interest in the
Straits. Vital, therefore, have been the so-called Danubian
Provinces (the Balkans). At different times she has been
compelled to be allied with the British against the French, with
France against England, for herself as against both France and
England, with Germany against Britain, with Britain against the
Germans. For her protection, Russia, at different times, has had
to advocate that the Straits be opened to warships including her
own and at times that the Straits be closed to all warships
including her own. Britain’s policy has similarly changed
according to her necessities and needs. At one time Britain
asserted that a change in the Straits settlement would mean
war. At another time it
enforced the exact opposite against Russia’s demands. All manner
and kinds of reasons have been assigned
[Page 1431]
for wars which were fought around the
Straits: the aspirations of Greece for independence, and the
protection of Christians in Turkey, the Holy Alliance, the
British route to India, etc. So far as Russia is concerned, it
appears clear that two dominant purposes have controlled: first,
the desire for access out to warm water, and second the desire
to prevent naval attack from the outside by stopping access into
the Black Sea through the Straits. She has constantly sought to
maintain her control over her vital interests in the Balkans
connected with the Danubian Provinces (Rumania and
Bulgaria).
It is apparent that Britain’s purposes have been two fold. One,
to protect her life-line to India; the other, to maintain the
balance of power in Europe.
The interests involved on both sides in the present day cannot be
assessed except with full consideration for these basic and
existing realities.
memorandum as to the
dardanelles and the straits
| 1768–1791 |
Beginning of Russian
Interest |
|
Russia obtained access to the Black Sea by the
conquest of the Crimea and territory adjacent to the
Black Sea and Rumania by defeating the
Turkish armies. |
| 1798–1802 |
Russian Control of the Danubian
Provinces (The
Balkans) |
|
The Straits, the Dardanelles, and Turkey were menaced
by Napoleon’s expedition to Egypt in the French attack
against the British directed against India. Russia and
Turkey joined up with the British and Nelson destroyed the
French fleet at the Battle of Aboukir; Russia and Turkey
took the Ionian Islands. In 1802 the control of the
Straits resided in Turkey and Russia. The latter was
granted control over the Danubian Provinces which, on
the European side, were vital to the use of the
Straits. |
| 1802–1812 |
Napoleonic Wars |
|
Needled by the French, the Turkish position on the
Straits threatened British interests and the British
fleet forced the Dardanelles, demanding the expulsion of
the French Ambassador.2 The British fleet was
forced to retire. Russia in the meantime, also
concerned, claimed that the agreements as to the
Danubian Provinces were being violated by the Turks.
Turkey declared war on
Russia which was composed
[Page 1432]
by the Treaty
of Bucharest (1812).3
Napoleon aided Russia to procure concessions from Turkey
which opened the Straits to Russian ships. |
| 1812–1826 |
Period of the Congress of Vienna and
Holy Alliance |
|
This was the period of the “Sick Man of Europe” and of
the war for Greek
Independence with constant trouble in the Danubian
Provinces. Russia served an ultimatum on Turkey
demanding its old control over the Danubian Provinces
and rights in the Straits. This time, on the advice of
Austria and France, Turkey yielded. By
the Convention of Ackermann in 18264 the Black Sea was open
to Russian ships and control by Russia over the Danubian
Provinces was reaffirmed. (Territory now
Rumania). |
| 1829 |
In connection with the war for Greek independence, Russia, France,
and Turkey [Great Britain],
defeated the Turkish [Fleet] at the naval Battle of
Navarino. The Russian status as to the
Straits was not disturbed. |
| 1833 |
Turkey was attacked by Egypt and asked for Russian
aid. This resulted in an agreement whereby Russian ships
of war were granted the
right to pass through the Straits and Russia was also
granted the right to land troops there if necessary. All other war ships were excluded from the
Straits.5 |
|
For the period of the next 7 years
Russia had the exclusive right of war ship access to the
Straits and the greatest influence in this
region. |
| 1840 |
Due to Russia’s desire to split the alliance between
England and France Russia agreed with Britain at the
Conference of London to relinquish these rights and
consented to the closing of the Black
Sea and the Straits to all warships including
Russian warships.6 |
| 1853 |
Russia attacked the Danubian Provinces upon religious
pretext and Turkey declared war on Russia. France and England joined
Turkey and the Crimean War
ensued. British and French warships passed through the
Straits and attacked Sevastopol. |
[Page 1433]
| 1856 |
The Treaty of Paris7 provided that
Russia should relinquish all rights over the Danubian
Provinces and the Black Sea was opened to the commerce
of all countries and closed to all ships of war except a few small
Turkish and Russian war
vessels. |
| 1871 |
Taking advantage of the Franco-Prussian war Russia repudiated the restrictions of
the Treaty of Paris which forbade the construction of
Naval Arsenals in the Black Sea. London recognized this
repudiation with the exception that the Straits could
not be used for warships.8 |
| 1884 [1887] |
A treaty9 was entered into between
Russia and Germany (Bismarck) which insured
Russia against the use of the Straits by British
warships, and by a secret protocol provided Russia the
right to occupy the Straits if necessary. |
| 1890 |
Russia tried to renew this treaty with Germany. The
latter, then courting Britain, refused. |
| 1894 |
England served notice that any attempt to change the
Straits settlement which would permit the passing of
war ships would be a
casus belli. |
| 1908 |
Austria and Russia agreed upon a partition of Turkey.
The Straits were to be in the Russian zone and Bulgaria
to be in the sphere of Russian influence. Austria
annexed Hercegovina. Bulgaria declared its independence
for which Russia released Turkey of a debt of 20 million
pounds. |
| 1915 |
World War. Britain agreed to
open the Straits to Russian war ships, a reversal of the classic
British policy.10 |
| 1923 |
Despite Bolshevik objection this was done by the
Straits Convention drawn up at the Lausanne
Conference11 and Turkey was not
permitted to fortify the Straits. |
[Page 1434]
| 1936 |
The Montreux Conference12
permitted Turkey to fortify the Straits and
international control was ended. When threatened with
war, Turkey was
granted the right to close the Straits to warships.13 |
