File No. 860d.01
The Finnish Commissioner (Renter) to the Secretary of State1
Finland’s Constitution: At First Respected, 1809–1899, Overridden by Tsar Nicholas 1899–1905
The constitution of Finland, solemnly guaranteed to her by the Russian Emperor Alexander I, who declared that his guarantees were binding not only on himself but also on his successors, was on the whole respected by Russia and her rulers from 1809, when Finland was united to Russia, until the last decade of the nineteenth century. During the reign of Alexander II and in the first years of the reign of Alexander III the constitutional rights were even to some degree extended, the Finnish legislature (the Landtdag) being invested with larger powers than before.
In the reign of the last Russian Tsar a reactionary régime began, and during the era of oppression, commencing in 1899, numerous Finnish patriots were exiled or deported to remote parts of Russia. One of the most important results of this regime was the disbandment of the Finnish Army in 1902, after which year there has been [Page 757] no conscription in Finland, but instead a military contribution, amounting to 20,000,000 Finnish marks per annum, has been paid to Russia. The separation of Finland from Russia last year, therefore, did not in the least affect the fighting power of Russia.
Constitution Restored, Short Period of Important Reforms, 1905–1908
The popular movements in Russia as well as in Finland following on the war with Japan forced on the Tsar an attitude of a more liberal policy, the fruit of which in Russia consisted in the establishment of the legislative chambers, the Duma and the Council of Empire, while in Finland a manifesto was issued on November 4, 1905, “for the restoration of legal order in Finland,” that is, a repeal of all, or at least the most important, of the numerous illegal and anti-constitutional measures taken by the Russian authorities in regard to Finland during the preceding period.
This manifesto became the signal in Finland for the introduction of many much-needed reforms, which it had been impossible to carry out before. Thus, to cite here the most important measures only, the Finnish Landtdag, which was the direct continuation of the old Swedish Riksdag, and consisted of four chambers with a very limited franchise, was replaced by a new legislature consisting of 200 members, sitting in one chamber only, and the franchise was extended to every Finnish citizen, man and woman, who is 24 years of age, without any property qualifications or other restrictions, except in the case of criminals and lunatics. A system of proportional election was introduced. Freedom of the press, of associations, and of meetings was guaranteed by law. Measures were also taken for extending civil rights to the Jews (of whom there are in Finland about 1,000), but owing to the reaction which set in in Russia it was impossible to pass the laws on this matter.
Reactionary Tendencies, Policy of Oppression Resumed, 1908–1917
It did not last long till these reactionary tendencies began to make themselves felt among the Russian autocratic and bureaucratic wire pullers. As for Russia proper, these tendencies resulted in the passing of new electoral laws, whereby the liberal elements were largely debarred from the Duma. As for Finland, the old policy of Russification was once more embarked upon, and the first signs of it appeared in 1908. In 1910 a law was enacted in Russia, withdrawing all more important matters of Finnish legislation from the competency of the Finnish Landtdag and investing legislative powers regarding Finland in the Russian legislature.
[Page 758]Opinion of European Jurisprudents
This law of 1910 was passed in spite of vigorous protests of the Finnish Diet, and without paying any regard to the reasoned opinion of several European jurisprudents who met at a conference in February and March 1910 in the house of the late Dr. John Westlake, K. C, that eminent English international lawyer, under the chairmanship of another great English lawyer, Sir Frederick Pollock, while Sir Edward Fry sent a written statement to be appended to the protocol of this conference which was drawn up by one of its members, the French international lawyer, Professor A. de Lapradelle. The Finnish claims were strongly upheld in this protocol, but without avail.
Persecution of Finnish Officials and Judges
The law of 1910 was forced through the Russian legislature, and now followed a period of oppression in no manner less severe than the period between 1899 and 1905. A great many Finnish officials and judges now found themselves confronted with the workings of this illegally enacted law, and incurred severe punishment for their loyalty to the Finnish laws which they had sworn to uphold. Thus twenty-three judges of the court of appeal of Viborg were sentenced by a Russian law court—lower in grade than the court of which they were members—to sixteen months’ confinement in Russian prisons, dismissed from their judgeships and disqualified to hold any office, salaried or honorary, for ten years.
The Outbreak of the War; Deportation of Mr. P. E. Svinhufvud, Speaker of the Landtdag
Such was the state of things when the war broke out. It was then largely hoped in Finland that the Tsar would do the generous thing and restore Finland to her constitutional rights. But such hopes were soon scattered. On the contrary, in October 1914 the Tsar gave his sanction to a program of the complete Russification of Finland, but only some of its items were actually carried out. Others were deferred on account of representations made by the governments of some of the Allied powers. Nevertheless, cases of severe oppression occurred, the most notable being the deportation to Siberia of one of the most universally respected Finnish citizens, Mr. P. E. Svinhufvud, who 1905–1911 had been speaker of the Finnish Landtdag. It was not until the outbreak of the Russian revolution in March 1917 that he was allowed to return.
[Page 759]The Composition of the Landtdag
Since the war broke out the Finnish Landtdag had not once been convened, though it is especially provided that it should meet every year, and no exception is made for time of war. In 1916 the mandates of the members of the Landtdag expired, and new elections took place. Seeing that there was very little prospect of the legislature being convened to a session, the participation at the election was very lame, only 50 per cent of the electorate going to the poll. The Socialist contingent of the electorate, however, took a livelier part, and the result of the election was that 103 Socialist members were returned, as against 97 members belonging to various non-Socialist party groups.
The Beginning of the Russian Revolution; Finland’s Autonomy Restored
When the Russian revolution broke out in March 1917, and the Tsarist regime came to an end, things seemed to take a better turn for Finland. The members of the Temporary Government then formed in Russia were opposed to the previous régime also in its policy toward Finland, and one of the first steps of this new government was to restore Finland’s constitutional rights and her autonomous position. The Finnish Landtdag was at once convened, and the Finnish government, which before the revolution was largely composed by Russians, contrary to the Finnish Constitution, under which only Finnish citizens can hold office in Finland, was deposed, and a new government formed. Since the majority in the Landtdag consisted of Socialists, it was offered to that party to form the government, but as they did not care to take over the responsibility, a coalition government was formed with a Socialist majority.
The Working of the Finnish Constitution
It will be necessary, in order to elucidate further events in Finland, to give a brief sketch of the working of the Finnish Constitution.
The legislation in Finland is carried on by the Landtdag, but in minor matters the sovereign, i. e., the Russian Emperor in his capacity of Grand Duke of Finland, had the power to issue ordinances. All laws passed by the Landtdag must receive the sanction of the sovereign. The administration is invested in the Finnish government (called the Senate, which is not an upper legislative house, but the executive) and ultimately by the sovereign. All matters concerning foreign relations belong to the Emperor. The Tsar, as Grand Duke of Finland, appoints the members of the Finnish [Page 760] government (who should, constitutionally, be chosen from among Finnish citizens); it belongs to him to summon the Diet, to dissolve the Landtdag, to issue writs for new elections, etc. When the Tsar abdicated, the powers formerly under the Finnish Constitution belonging to the Emperor-Grand Duke, were vested in the Russian Temporary Government.
Disorders among the Russian Soldiery
In the meantime among the Russian soldiery stationed in Finland all bonds of discipline were dissolved. Hundreds of Russian officers were killed in Finland by their own men, who also perpetrated numerous acts of violence against Finnish citizens and constantly interfered in the internal affairs of Finland. The Finnish government made repeated representations to the Russian Temporary Government, and the latter’s remonstrances to their troops in Finland were of no avail. On the contrary, the soldiers and sailors committed graver acts of violence, robbing and murdering. It soon became evident that, whereas the Tsarist regime was unwilling to respect Finland’s autonomy, the new Russian government was unable to carry out its undoubtedly good intentions.
Craving for Independence
The craving for independence fostered among the Finlanders during the rule of Russian bureaucracy, and temporarily lulled in consequence of the renewed Russian promises, now grew in intensity among all party groups in Finland, bourgeois as well as Socialists, and the question of complete independence was publicly discussed in the press, and the Finnish premier at that time, a Socialist, officially proclaimed total independence as the aim of Finnish aspirations.
The Landtdag Dissolved; New Elections; Defeat of the Socialist Party; Non-Socialist Government Formed
In the meantime, the Landtdag was at work, and in July a bill was adopted, principally carried by the Socialist vote, by which the supreme power, including that of sanctioning laws and appointing members of the government, was to be vested in the Landtdag, and thus to be withdrawn from the Russian Temporary Government. This last-named government, however, which, as pointed out above, had taken over the functions of the Grand Duke of Finland, refused to sanction this bill, dissolved the Diet, and issued writs for new elections. In consequence hereof the Socialist members of the Finnish government resigned, while the non-Socialist members remained as a working cabinet pending the result of the new elections. These took place on October 1 and 2, 1917, and resulted in a defeat [Page 761] of the Socialist Party, only 92 Socialist members being returned, instead of 103 in the previous Landtdag. A new government was now formed, in which no Socialist took office. The new Premier was Mr. P. E. Svinhufvud, who is at present head of the Finnish government.
The Bolshevist Régime in Russia; Red Guards in Finland
At about this time important events had happened in Russia culminating in the victory of the Bolshevik wing of the Socialists over the moderate Socialist parties. The Russian reign of terror had grown in strength, and spread to Finland. The Socialists in Finland proclaimed a general strike in Helsingfors and organized a force called the Red Guards, ostensibly to keep order in the city, but really in order to terrorize the inhabitants. These guards were formed out of the dregs of the population, and their ranks included many criminals. They received rifles and ammunition from the Russian soldiers and sailors, and they committed numerous murders in Helsingfors and its vicinity, killing about 40 peaceful citizens. Also in other districts of Finland gross disturbances occurred. The Socialist leaders stood aghast over these atrocities, but they were powerless against the evil passions now let loose. However, order was eventually restored, and the Landtdag, which in the meantime had assembled in Helsingfors, could begin its work.
Declaration of Independence
In Russia there was complete anarchy. The Temporary Russian Government, at its latest stages so intimately associated with the name of M. Kerensky, had ceased to exist, and the Bolshevist government was by no means generally recognized by the Russian people, and still less by the governments of the Allied powers. This being the case, the Finnish government found the only salvation for Finland in proclaiming the independence of the country. The government therefore drew up a declaration of independence, which was presented to the Landtdag on December 4, 1917, and unanimously adopted by it. The Landtdag, furthermore, adopted an address, couched in deferential terms, to be presented to the Russian National Assembly, which then was expected to meet on the 11th of December, in which the reasons were given for the step now taken by the Finnish people, and asking for the Assembly’s recognition. It should, perhaps, be added here, that in Russian government circles it had repeatedly been asserted that full liberty was conceded to Finland to determine her political status up to complete independence. The Landtdag also delegated to the government powers to take all necessary steps for carrying out the policy of independence.
[Page 762]Recognition of the Bolshevik Government and of Foreign Powers
The Finnish government consequently sent out commissions to various foreign powers in order to notify them of the declaration of independence and ask for their recognition. The first power to be thus approached was Sweden, and the deputation to the Swedish Government received from the King of Sweden on December 28 a reply, assuring the deputation of profound sympathies in Sweden but making it a condition for Sweden’s recognition that the independence of Finland had previously been recognized by Russia.
As has been said above, the Finnish legislature and government had decided to seek the recognition from the Russian National Assembly. Since, however, it became highly uncertain at what date the Assembly would meet, if indeed it was allowed to meet at all, the Finnish government decided to approach the Russian Soviet government, which early in January decided to recognize Finland as an independent and sovereign republic. A joint commission of Russian and Finnish representatives was appointed to evaluate certain Russian government properties in Finland, such as the telegraph service, etc., to be redeemed by Finland, both parties binding themselves to submit to the findings of this commission.
As soon as the recognition of the Soviet government was known, Sweden definitely recognized the independence of Finland, and similar recognitions then followed in rapid succession: by France—even before the deputation charged with notifying the French government had arrived—Denmark, Norway, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Switzerland, Spain.
The Finnish deputation to Great Britain received from Mr. Balfour the following answer, published in the Times (London) on January 31:
Mr. Balfour has informed the Finnish mission now in this country that Great Britain fully approves the reasons for Finland’s independence, and disapproves of the former Russian policy of oppression. The British Government has already recognized de facto Finland’s independence by entering into direct relations through the appointment of the British Consul General at Helsingfors.
The presence of Russian soldiery in Finland is regarded as inconsistent with the Bolshevists’ recognition of Finland’s independence, as foreign troops cannot occupy a sovereign country. The British Government hopes soon to be able to recognize Finland’s independence de jure, this depending either upon a favourable view of consolidated Russian political power, or continued disorder.
Mr. Balfour also assured the mission that he was convinced that Finland would soon take her place forever among the sovereign nations.
To this it may be added that the British Government has consented to the establishment of a Finnish Consulate General in London.
- Note in the margin of MS.: “Handed to Mr. Miles by Dr. Reuter, Finnish commissioner, Mar. 1, 1918.”↩